History of the Forbidden City

The History of the Forbidden City spans some six centuries. Located in the middle of Beijing, China, the Forbidden City was the imperial palace from the mid-Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty.

Built from 1406 to 1420, the palace complex has undergone many changes. After serving as the imperial palace for some five hundred years, the Forbidden City became a museum - the Palace Museum - in 1924. In 1987, it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Construction and Ming Dynasty

The site of the Forbidden City was part of the during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming Dynasty moved the capital from Beijing in the north to Nanjing in the south, and in 1369 ordered that the Mongol palaces be razed. His son Zhu Di was created Prince of Yan with his seat in Beijing. In 1402, Zhu Di usurped the throne and became the Yongle Emperor. He made Beijing a secondary capital of the Ming empire, and construction began in 1406 of what would become the Forbidden City. The Chief Architects were the eunuch Ruan An and Cai Xing, and the Chief Engineers were Kuai Xiang and Lu Xiang.

Construction lasted 15 years and employed the work of 100,000 skilled artisans and up to a million labourers. The pillars of the most important halls were made of whole logs of precious '''' wood found in the jungles of south-western China. Such a feat was not to be repeated in subsequent years — the great pillars seen today were rebuilt using multiple pieces of pinewood in the Qing Dynasty. The grand terraces and large stone carvings were made of stone from quarries near Beijing. The larger pieces could not be transported conventionally. Instead, wells were dug along the way, and water from the wells was poured on the road in deep winter, forming a layer of ice. The stones were dragged along the ice.

The floors of major halls were paved with "golden bricks" , baked with clay from seven counties of Suzhou and Songjiang prefectures. Each batch took months to bake, resulting in smooth bricks that ring with a metallic sound.

Even before the palace was completed, Zhu Di moved to Beijing under the guise of "touring and hunting" : the administrative centre of the empire gradually shifted from Nanjing to Beijing. When the palace was completed in 1420, Zhu Di moved there and Beijing officially became the primary capital of the empire. However, he soon fled before the combined armies of former Ming general Wu Sangui and Manchu forces, setting fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process.

Qing Dynasty

By October, the Manchus had achieved supremacy in northern China, and prince regent Dorgon proclaimed the Qing Dynasty as the successor to the Ming. A ceremony was held at the Forbidden City to proclaim the young Shunzhi Emperor as ruler of all China. The Qing rulers largely maintained the Palace's Ming Dynasty scheme, except for the names of the principal buildings. The Ming Dynasty names favoured the character ''ji'' , meaning "supremacy" or "extremity", while the new Qing names favoured names meaning "peace" and "harmony"; for example, ''Huangji Dian'', the "Hall of Imperial Supremacy", was changed to ''Taihe Dian'', the "Hall of Supreme Harmony".

In addition, signs and were made bilingual , and the main part of the Empress's official bedchamber, the Hall of Earthly Tranquility, became a shrine.

The Forbidden City thus became the power centre of the Qing Dynasty. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, Anglo-French forces took control of the Forbidden City and occupied it until the end of the war. In 1900 Empress Dowager Cixi fled from the Forbidden City during the Boxer Rebellion, leaving it to be occupied by forces of the treaty powers until the following year.

After being home to twenty-four emperors, fourteen of the Ming Dynasty and ten of the Qing Dynasty, the Forbidden City ceased to be the political centre of China in 1912, with the abdication of Puyi, the last Emperor of China. However, under an agreement signed between the and the new Republic of China government, Puyi was allowed, in fact required, to live within the walls of the Forbidden City. Puyi and his family retained the use of the Inner Court, while the Outer Court was handed over to the Republican authorities. A museum was established in the Outer Court in 1914.

After the revolution

Opposition to Puyi staying in the palace grew during the Beiyang government of the Republic of China.

In 1923 Reginald Johnston, Puyi's English teacher, told Puyi about eunuchs smuggling treasures out of the palace and selling them in antique shops. Puyi ordered an audit of the palace's collections. Before it began, a fire consumed the gardens of the Palace of Establishing Prosperity where the bulk of the Qianlong Emperor's collection of art works was stored. In his memoir, Puyi claimed the fire was started by the eunuchs to conceal their embezzlement. This fire further fuelled public sentiments against Puyi's continued occupation of the palace. The gardens were not rebuilt until 2005.

In 1924, Feng Yuxiang took control of Beijing in a coup. Denouncing the previous agreement with the Qing imperial house, Feng expelled Puyi from the Palace.

Soon, however, the threatened the safety of these national treasures, and they were moved out of the Forbidden City. Starting in 1933, important artefacts were packed and evacuated. They were first shipped to Nanjing and thence to Shanghai. However, the soon threatened Shanghai. The Executive Yuan decided to evacuate the collections to the remote west. The artefacts were split into three lots. One took the northern route towards Shaanxi. One was shipped up the Yangtze River towards Sichuan. The final lot was transported south towards Guangxi. The pace of the Japanese advance forced the artefacts to be moved quickly to escape bombing and capture, often with just hours' notice. In the end, all three collections reached the relative safety of Sichuan, where they stayed until the end of the war.

Meanwhile, the Japanese army captured the Forbidden City in Beijing, but were only able to remove a few large bronze tubs and a few cannons. Most of these were recovered after the war, in Tianjin.

In 1947, with the Kuomintang losing the Chinese Civil War, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the artefacts from the Forbidden City and the National Museum in Nanjing to be moved to Taiwan. In the event no artefacts were shipped from Beijing, but many of the best collections stored in Nanjing were shipped to Taiwan, and today form the core of the National Palace Museum in Taipei.

Under the People's Republic of China

In 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed at Tiananmen, directly in front of the Forbidden City. Over the next two decades various proposals were made to raze or reconstruct the Forbidden City to create a public park, a transport interchange, or "places of entertainment".

The Forbidden City suffered some damage during this period, including the dismantling of the throne in the Hall of Middle Harmony, the removal of name tablets from several buildings and gardens, and the demolition of some minor gates and structures.

The damage peaked during the Cultural Revolution. In 1966, the Hall of Worshipping Ancestors was modified and some artefacts destroyed for an exhibition of revolutionary mud sculptures. However, further destruction was prevented when Premier Zhou Enlai intervened by sending an army battalion to guard the city. These troops also prevented ransacking by the who were swept up in the storm to demolish the "Four Olds". From 1966 to 1971, all gates to the Forbidden City were sealed, saving it from more destruction.

The Forbidden City was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987 by UNESCO as the "Imperial Palace of the Ming and Qing Dynasties", due to its significant place in the development of Chinese architecture and culture.

Present

Currently, the Palace Museum is responsible for the preservation and restoration of the Forbidden City. Building heights around the Forbidden City are restricted. In 2005, a sixteen-year restoration project was started to repair and restore all buildings in the Forbidden City to their pre-1912 state. This is the largest restoration of the Forbidden City undertaken in two centuries, and involves progressively closing off sections of the Forbidden City for assessment, repairs, and restoration. Also as part of the project, some derelict or destroyed sections are being rebuilt. The gardens of the Palace of Establishing Prosperity, destroyed by fire in 1923, were rebuilt in 2005, but remain closed to the public., which opened in 2000, sparked objections and eventually closed on July 13, 2007. Chinese media also took notice of a pair of souvenir shops that refused to admit Chinese citizens in 2006. According to the reports, the purpose was to preserve an atmosphere where foreigners could be victims of price gouging. The Palace Museum promised to investigate the matter. Some commentators, such as influential Phoenix TV host Luqiu Luwei, have further questioned the whole practice of renting out premises in the Forbidden City as retail space.

In 2005, and the Palace Museum announced a joint project to build a World Wide Web-based of the Forbidden City and associated sites in Beijing. The online cultural heritage project, titled ''The Forbidden City: Beyond Space and Time'', will be presented in both and , and provide interactive, , representations of Forbidden City structures and cultural artefacts. The virtual Forbidden City will consist of some 800 buildings, and will launch sometime during 2008.

Hall of Union

The Hall of Union is a building in the Forbidden City, in Beijing, China. It stands between the Palace of Heavenly Purity and the Palace of Earthly Tranquility. These three halls together constitute the centre of the Inner Court of the palace complex.

The hall is square in shape with a pyramidal roof. Stored here are the twenty-five Imperial of the Qing Dynasty, as well as other ceremonial items, including the clocks that set the official time in the palace (first a water clock, later a mechanical clock, both still displayed in the hall.

Hall of Supreme Harmony

The Hall of Supreme Harmony is the largest hall within the Forbidden City. It is located at its central axis, behind the Gate of Supreme Harmony. Built above three levels of marble stone base, and surrounded by bronze incense burners, the Hall of Supreme Harmony is one of the largest wooden structures within China. It was the location where Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty Emperors hosted their enthronement and wedding ceremonies.

Together with the Hall of Central Harmony and Hall of Preserving Harmony, the three halls constitute the heart of the Outer Court of the Forbidden City.

The Hall of Supreme Harmony rises some 30 meters above the level of the surrounding square. It is the ceremonial center of imperial power, and the largest surviving wooden structure in China. It is nine bays wide and five bays deep, the numbers nine and five being symbolically connected to the majesty of the Emperor. The six pillars nearest the imperial throne are covered with gold, and the entire area is decorated with a motif. The imperial throne, in particular, has five dragons coiled around the back and handrests. The screen behind it features sets of nine dragons, again reflecting the "nine-five" symbolism.

Set into the ceiling directly above the throne is an intricate decorated with a coiled dragon, from the mouth of which issues a chandelier-like set of metal balls. Called the " Mirror", this object harkens back to Xuanyuan, the Yellow Emperor, the legendary first ruler of China. In the Ming Dynasty, the Emperor held court here to discuss affairs of state. During the Qing Dynasty, Emperors held court far more frequently. As a result, the location was changed to the Inner Court, and the Hall of Supreme Harmony was only used for ceremonial purposes, such as coronations, investitures, and imperial weddings.

The original hall was built by the Ming Dynasty in 1406 and was destroyed seven times by fires during the Qing Dynasty and last re-built in 1695–1697.

Hall of Preserving Harmony

The Hall of Preserving Harmony is one of the three halls of the Outer Court of the Forbidden City in Beijing, China, along with the Hall of Supreme Harmony and Hall of Central Harmony. Rectangular in plan, the Hall of Preserving Harmony is similar to, but smaller in scale than, the Hall of Supreme Harmony. It was used for rehearsing ceremonies, and was also the site of the final stage of the Imperial examination. Both of these halls also feature imperial thrones, though to a slightly smaller scale than that in the Hall of Supreme Harmony.

Gate of Supreme Harmony

The Gate of Supreme Harmony , is the second major gate at the southern side of the Forbidden City.

The gate was originally built during the Ming Dynasty, when it was called Fengtianmen . Following the Qing conquest of China, the gate was given its present Chinese and Manchu name.

It is flanked by two minor gates, Zhendu Gate to the west and Zhaode Gate to the east. This gate and the Meridian Gate form the north and south boundaries of a great plaza that is divided by a serpentine waterway spanned by the "Golden River Bridges". On the north side of the gate is Harmony Square and the entrance to the grand Hall of Supreme Harmony.

Arrayed around the stairs are a large number of incense burners.

The central stairway was reserved exclusively for the Emperor and his immediate attendants, as was the central entrance of Meridian Gate.

Gate of Divine Might

The Gate of Divine Might or Gate of Divine Prowess is the northern gate of the Forbidden City in Beijing, China. It faces Jingshan Park. A tablet above the doorway reads "The Palace Museum" in Chinese.

The Gate was originally named The Gate , this being the traditional name for the northern gate of a Chinese Imperial Palace. However when the Kangxi Emperor, whose birth name was Xuanye , ascended to the throne, the word Xuán became a sacred . The character "Xuán" also has the meaning of "sacred mystery", which correlates well with the new character , meaning "divine".

Gate of China (Beijing)

The Gate of China in Beijing was a historical ceremonial gateway in Beijing, China, located near the centre of today's Tiananmen Square. It was demolished in 1954. This gate formed the southern gate of the during the and dynasties. It was located on the central axis of Beijing, and was located to the north of and south of Tiananmen. Unlike these two defensive gates, the Gate of China was a purely ceremonial gateway, with no ramparts, but instead a brick-stone structure with three gateways.

History

The gate was first built in the period of the Ming dynasty. As it was the southern gate of the Imperial City, and in ancient China "south" was regarded as the most eminent direction, this gate enjoyed a status as "Gate of the Nation". Its name has changed as dynasties rose and fell. In the Ming dynasty it was known as the "Great Ming Gate", and bore a set of engraved couplets "The Sun and Moon illuminate the virtues of Heaven; The Mountains and Rivers make magnificent the home of the Emperor" . When the Qing dynasty replaced the Ming, the gate's name was accordingly changed to the "Great Qing Gate" in 1644. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the gate's name was changed to the "Gate of China". In 1952, with the expansion of Tiananmen Square, consultants from the Soviet Union recommended demolishing the gate. In 1954 the gate was demolished. In 1976, after the death of Mao Zedong, a mausoleum was built for him on the site of the former gate.

Architecture

As the dividing point between the Imperial City and the commoners' city, the Gate of China was built to be formal and stately. The Great Qing Code prescribed that it was to have three gateways, flying eaves, a perfectly square plaza before it, two lions on each side, and a "dismounting stele" on each side . It is similar in style to the Great Red Gate at the Ming Dynasty Tombs and imperial tombs of the Qing dynasty.

In the Qing dynasty, the space between the Great Qing Gate and the was a square plaza surrounded by a stone fence. During the Ming dynasty, this space had been a busy market place, called "Chessgrid Streets" because of the narrow alleys between stalls.

The Dismounting Steles outside the gate marked the place where officials must exit from sedan chairs or dismount from horses. Upon entering the gate, only the Emperor, Empress, and Empress Dowager may ride in sedan chairs. In the Qing dynasty, the Empress may only enter the Forbidden City via the Great Qing Gate on the occasion of her wedding. All other concubines and consorts can only enter via the back gate, the Gate of Divine Might.

Tablet

The main tablet hanging above the gate was carved out of stone, with the individual characters made of Lapis lazuli and fitted into the tablet. On October 9, 1912, the day before the one year anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution, the Republic of China government decided to change the name to "China Gate" to celebrate the overthrow of imperial power. It was thought that they could simply take down the tablet, reverse it, and carve the new name on it. When the stone was taken down, however, they discovered that the inside was inscribed "Great Ming Gate": it seems the artisans had already thought of the idea two hundred years ago. So a wooden tablet was quickly made, and the mayor of Beijing wrote the three characters "中華門" .

The original stone tablet is now in the Capital Museum in Beijing.

Fortaleza do Monte

Fortaleza do Monte is the historical military centre of the former of Macau, in the People's Republic of China. It is part of the "Historic Centre of Macau", a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


The fort was initially built in the 16th century for protecting the properties of Jesuit in Macau. Later it was seized by the , for the defense of Macau.

The Museum of Macau was built on the hill in the 1990s. The tree covered park at the top of the fort has a panaromic view of the mainland area of Macau.

Emin Minaret

The Emin Minaret stands by the Mosque located in Turfan, Xinjiang, China. At 44 meters it is the tallest minaret in China. The Qing Dynasty conquered this largely region in the 1750s by defeating the Mongols and the Uyghurs with their superior weaponry in a series of battles. As conquerors, they ruled the local population with a light hand and were tolerant of the Muslim religion.

The minaret was started in 1777 during the reign of and was completed only one year later. It was financed by local leaders and built to honor the exploits of a local Turfan general, Emin Khoja, hence the name "Emin". The Emin Minaret is located along the ancient . Nearby is the site of the Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves. The minaret has no stories. Inside, the spiraling internal support serves as a winding 72-step staircase to the top. The ground floor of a minaret is always square while the higher parts may be of varying shapes, including round, square, or octagonal. The minaret is the most distinctive feature of any mosque and this is no different in the case of the Emin Minaret.

Dougong

Dougong is a unique structural element of interlocking wooden , one of the most important elements in traditional , , and Korean architecture.

The use of dougong first appeared in buildings of the late centuries BC and evolved into a structural network that joined pillars and columns to the frame of the roof. ''Dougong'' was widely used in the Ancient Chinese during the Spring and Autumn Period and developed into a complex set of interlocking parts by its peak in the and periods. The pieces are fit together by alone without or fasteners, due to the precision and quality of the carpentry.

After the Song Dynasty, brackets and bracket sets became more ornamental than structural when used in palatial structures and important religious buildings, no longer the traditional ''dougong''.

Function

Dougong is part of the network of wooden supports essential to the timber frame structure of traditional Chinese building because the walls in these structures are not load-bearing , sometimes made of latticework, mud or other delicate material. Walls functioned to delineate spaces in the structure rather than to support weight.


Multiple interlocking bracket sets are formed by placing a large wooden block on a column to provide a solid base for the bow-shaped brackets that support the beam or another gong above it. The function of ''dougong'' is to provide increased support for the weight of the horizontal beams that span the vertical columns or pillars by transferring the weight on horizontal beams over a larger area to the vertical columns . This process can be repeated many times, and rise many stories. Adding multiple sets of interlocking brackets or ''dougong'' reduces the amount of strain on the horizontal beams when transferring their weight to a column. Multiple dougong also allows structures to be elastic and to withstand damage from earthquakes.

During the Ming Dynasty an innovation occurred through the invention of new wooden components that aided ''dougong'' in supporting the roof. This allowed ''dougong'' to add a decorative element to buildings in the traditional Chinese integration of artistry and function, and bracket sets became smaller and more numerous. Brackets could be hung under eaves, giving the appearance of graceful baskets of flowers while also supporting the roof.


The Bao'en Temple in Sichuan is a good example of the Ming style. It has forty-eight types and 2,200 sets of ''dougong'' to support and ornament it. It is a well-preserved fifteenth century monastery complex located in northwestern , China. It was built by Wang Xi, a local chieftain, between 1440 and 1446 during 's reign in the Ming Dynasty .

Dongjin Bridge

The Dongjin Bridge in Ganzhou, Jiangxi province, China is a pontoon bridge constructed over the Zhang River and Gong River in the Chinese Song Dynasty . It is the survivor of several pontoon bridges found in China.

Its length is a total of roughly 400 metres long, made up of wooden planks placed on around 100 wooden boats linked together with iron chains.

Deshengmen

The Deshengmen is one of the few surviving city gates in Beijing, , located at the northern tip of the 2nd Ring Road. In old times, the army would leave Beijing from Xuanwumen and re-enter the city, triumphant, at Deshengmen.

The gateway was made up of three structures in ancient times - the gatehouse, the archery tower, and the barbican. However, the gatehouse proper was demolished in 1921, and the barbican has been severely damaged. The archery tower, however, is well-preserved and surroundings are well-lit at night. The Beijing Subway has a stop here. An extension to the Badaling Expressway links to the surrounding the gate.

Chinese Palaces

Chinese Palaces are some of the most elaborate facilities that have been ever constructed. There is a long history of imperial rule in China, and the palaces were the sites where the royal court resided, as well as many government bureaucrats and functionaries.

The English word "palace" is used to translate the Chinese word 宮 . This character represents two rooms connected , under a roof . Originally the character applied to any residence or mansion, but starting with the Qin Dynasty it was used only for the residence of the emperor and members of the imperial family.

Chinese palaces are different from post-Renaissance European palaces because they do not consist of a single building only. Instead, Chinese palaces are huge spaces surrounded by one or more walls and moats and containing large separated halls for ceremonies and official business, as well as smaller buildings, temples, towers, residences, galleries, courtyards, gardens, and outbuildings, more like the or Carolingian ''palatium.''

Main imperial palaces, in chronological order

*Xianyang Palace , in Xianyang , now 15 km/9 miles east of modern Xianyang, Shaanxi province: this was the royal palace of the state of Qin before the Chinese unification, and then the palace of the when China was unified. Burnt down by Xiang Yu after the fall of the Qin Dynasty.
*Epang Palace , 20 km/12 miles south of Xianyang , now 15 km/9 miles west of Xi'an , Shaanxi province: the fabulous imperial palace built by the First Emperor in replacement of Xianyang Palace. Traditionally said to be burnt down by Xiang Yu, but may not have been completed at the fall of the Qin Dynasty.
*Weiyang Palace , in Chang'an , now 7km/4 miles northeast of downtown Xi'an , Shaanxi province: imperial palace of the prestigious Western Han Dynasty for two centuries. This is the largest palace ever built on Earth, covering 4.8 km? , which is 6.7 times the size of the current Forbidden City, or 11 times the size of the Vatican City. Used after the Han Dynasty, rebuilt in the Tang Dynasty.
*Southern Palace and Northern Palace , in Luoyang , Henan province: imperial palaces of the Eastern Han Dynasty for two centuries, the Southern Palace being used for court hearings and audiences, the Northern Palace being the private residence of the emperor and his concubines. Demolished by Dong Zhuo at the end of the Han Dynasty.
*Taiji Palace , also known as the Western Apartments , in Chang'an , now downtown Xi'an , Shaanxi province: imperial palace during the Sui Dynasty and in the beginning of the Tang Dynasty . Area: 4.2 km? , imperial section proper: 1.92 km? .
*Daming Palace , also known as the Eastern Apartments , in Chang'an , now downtown Xi'an , Shaanxi province: imperial palace of the Tang Dynasty after A.D. 663 , but the prestigious Taiji Palace remained used for major state ceremonies such as coronations. Area: 3.11 km? .
*Kaifeng Imperial Palace , in Dongjing , now called Kaifeng , Henan province: imperial palace of the Northern Song Dynasty.
*Hangzhou Imperial Palace , in Lin'an , now called Hangzhou , Zhejiang province: imperial palace of the Southern Song Dynasty.
*Ming Imperial Palace , in Nanjing , Jiangsu province: imperial palace of the Ming Dynasty until 1421. Used as a source of stone and gradually demolished in the Qing Dynasty and by the .
*Forbidden City , now known in China as the Beijing Gugong , in Beijing : imperial palace of the Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty from 1421 until 1924. Area: 720,000 m? .

Other Places

Apart from the main imperial palace, Chinese dynasties also had several other imperial palaces in the capital city where the empress, crown prince, or other members of the imperial family dwelled. There also existed palaces outside of the capital city called "away palaces" where the emperors resided when traveling.

Imperial Gardens

The habit also developed of building garden estates in the countryside surrounding the capital city, where the emperors retired at times to get away from the rigid etiquette of the imperial palace, or simply to escape from the summer heat inside their capital. This practice reached a zenith with the Qing Dynasty, whose emperors built the fabulous Imperial Gardens , now known in China as the Gardens of Perfect Brightness , and better known in English as the Old Summer Palace. The emperors of the Qing Dynasty resided and worked in the Imperial Gardens, 8km/5 miles outside of the walls of Beijing, the Forbidden City inside Beijing being used only for formal ceremonies.

These gardens were made up of three gardens: the Garden of Perfect Brightness proper, the Garden of Eternal Spring , and the Elegant Spring Garden ; they covered a huge area of 3.5 km? , almost 5 times the size of the Forbidden City, and 8 times the size of the Vatican City. comprising hundreds of halls, pavilions, temples, galleries, gardens, lakes, etc. Several famous landscapes of southern China had been reproduced in the Imperial Gardens, hundreds of invaluable Chinese art masterpieces and antiquities were stored in the halls, making the Imperial Gardens one of the largest museum in the world. Some unique copies of literary work and compilations were also stored inside the Imperial Gardens.

In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the and expeditionary forces looted the Old Summer Palace. Then on October 18, 1860, in order to "punish" the imperial court, which had refused to allow Western embassies inside Beijing, the British general - with protestations from the French - purposely ordered the torching of this massive complex which burned to the ground. It took 3500 British troops to set the entire place ablaze and took three whole days to burn. The burning of the Gardens of Perfect Brightness is still a very sensitive issue in China today.

Following this cultural catastrophe, the imperial court was forced to relocate to the old and austere Forbidden City where it stayed until 1924, when the was expelled by a republican army.

Summer Palace

Empress dowager Cixi built the Summer Palace or Yiheyuan near the Old Summer Palace, but on a much smaller scale than the Old Summer Palace.

More Palaces

Some other palaces include:

* Mukden Palace in Shengyang
* Mountain Resort at Chengde
* Zhaigong, Temple of Heaven in Beijing

The Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet was used by the Dalai Lama.

Recently, Chinese archaeologists have announced that they have found the ruins of an ancient Chinese palace in Dadiwan.

Caisson (Asian architecture)

The Caisson , also referred to as a caisson ceiling, or spider web ceiling
The caisson is generally a sunken panel set into the otherwise largely flat ceiling. It is often layered and richly decorated. Common shapes include square, octagon, hexagon, circle, and a combination of these.

Name

The ''caisson'' is a general name for any sunken panel placed in the ceiling. In the case of East Asian architecture, however, the caisson is characterised by highly developed conventions as to its structure and placement.

These are the following:

Structure

The caisson is a sunken panel placed in the centre of the ceiling. It is raised above the level of the ceiling through the use the ''dougong'' structure, which, through interlocking structural members, as beams were not used, creates successive levels of diminishing size. Beams may also be used to create a hexagonal or octagonal caisson surrounded by a square border. These beams, and the ''dougong'' members, are usually visible, and richly carved and often painted with deities.

The centre of the caisson is decorated with a large ''bas-relief'' carving or painting. Common themes include "two s chasing the pearl. Caissons in the throne rooms of the Forbidden City feature a large, writhing dragon, from whose mouth issue a chandelier-like structure called the Yellow Emperor Mirror, a series of metal balls which are said to be able to show reflections of evil spirits.

Caissons were originally used to support s. Therefore they are a relatively recent structure in the Chinese architectural history. However, they became increasingly intricate and formalised, and were in later periods a standard item of interior decoration in formal buildings.

Use in other structures

The caisson has been found in tombs of the Han Dynasty dating the use of this architectural feature back at least 2,000 years. Besides subterranean structure, the oldest existent caisson in an above-ground structure is the one located above the 16 m tall statue of Guanyin in the Guanyin Pavilion of Dule Monastery, Jixian, Hebei province, built in the year 984 during the Liao Dynasty. Without the use of interior columns, this ceiling is held up by a hidden second floor four-sided frame with a hexagonal ceiling frame on the third floor.

As the caisson became increasingly standard in formal architecture in ancient China, similar structures also appeared in grottos, such as in Dunhuang. These sunken panels in the ceiling of grottos would be carved to imitate the ''dougong''-based structure in wooden buildings.

Cultural significance

Caissons where highly decorative and used only for the most richly decorated structures. They had no specific cultural significance, since in structure they are equal to cupolas and domes constructed around the world. However the rich oramentation often conveyed cultural significance in the themes chosen.

Turfan water system

The Turfan water system in Turfan, located in the Turfan Depression, Xinjiang, China, is a qanat system that has been listed as one of the three greatest water projects of ancient China together with the Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System, and .
The word ''karez'' means "well" in the local Uyghur language.

In Xinjiang, the greatest number of karez wells are in the Turfan Depression, where today there remain over 1100 karez wells and channels having a total length of over 5000 kilometers. The local geography makes karez wells practical for agricultural irrigation and other uses. Turfan is located in the second deepest geographical in the world, with over 4,000 square kilometers of land below sea level and with soil that forms a sturdy . Water naturally flows down from the nearby mountains during the rainy season in an underground current to the low depression basin under the desert. The Turfan summer is very hot and dry with periods of wind and blowing sand. The water from the underground channels provides a stable water source year round, independent of season.

Importance

Ample water was crucial to Turfan, so that the oasis city could service the many on the Silk Route resting there near a route skirting the Taklamakan Desert. The caravans included s and with their armed escorts, animals including camels, sometimes numbering into the thousands, along with camel drivers, agents and other personnel, all of whom might stay for a week or more. The caravans needed pastures for their animals, resting facilities, trading bazaars for conducting business, and replenishment of food and water.

Tiananmen

Tiananmen , literally the "Gate of Heavenly Peace", is a famous monument in Beijing, the capital of People's Republic of China. It is a widely used national symbol. First built during the Ming Dynasty in 1420, Tiananmen is often referred to as the front entrance to the Forbidden City. However, the Meridian Gate is the first entrance to the Forbidden City proper, while Tiananmen was the entrance to the Imperial City, within which the Forbidden City was located. Tiananmen is located along the northern edge of Tiananmen Square.

History

The gate was originally named Chengtianmen , or "Gate of Accepting ", and it has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. The original building was first constructed in 1420 as an exact replica of a gate in the form of paifang of the imperial building in Nanjing with the same name and hence inherited the name Chentianmen. The gate was damaged by lightning in July, 1457, and was completely burnt down. In 1465, Chenghua Emperor ordered Zi Gui , the minister of Engineering Ministry to rebuild the gate, and the design was changed from the original paifang form to the gatehouse that is seen today. It suffered another blow in the war at the end of Ming Dynasty - in 1644 the gate was burnt down by rebels led by Li Zicheng. Following the establishment of the Qing Dynasty and the Manchu conquest of China proper, the gate was once again begun to be rebuilt in 1645 and was given its present name in 1651 when the construction completed six years later. The Tiananmen gate was reconstructed again between 1969-1970. The gate as it stood was by then 500 years old, and had badly deteriorated, partly due to heavy usage in the 1950s-60s. As the gate was a national symbol, then-Premier Zhou Enlai ordered that the rebuilding was to be kept secret. The whole gate was covered in scaffolding, and the project was officially called a "renovation". The rebuilding aimed to leave the gate's external appearance unchanged while making it more resistant to earthquakes and featuring modern facilities such as an elevator, water supply and heating system.

Meaning of name

The name of the gate, Tiān'ānmén 天安門, is made up of the Chinese characters for "heaven," "peace" and "gate" respectively, which is why the name is conventionally translated as "The Gate of Heavenly Peace". However, this translation is somewhat misleading, since the Chinese name is derived from the much longer phrase "receiving the mandate from heaven, and stabilizing the dynasty." . The name of the gate, ''Abkai elhe obure duka'', lies closer to the original meaning of the gate and can be literally translated as the "Gate of Heavenly Peacemaking." The gate has a counterpart in the northern end of the imperial city, Dì'ānmén 地安门 , which may be roughly translated as the "Gate of Earthly Peacemaking".

Description

The building is 66 meters long, 37 meters wide and 32 meters high. Like other official buildings of the empire, the gate has unique imperial roof decorations.

In front of the gate are two lions standing in front of the gate and two more guarding the bridges. In Chinese culture, lions are believed to protect humans from evil spirits.

Two stone columns, called ''huabi?o'' - each with an animal on top of it - also stand in front of the gate. Originally, these installations were designed for commoners to address their grievances by writing or sticking up petitions on the columns. However, the examples in front of the Imperial City were purely decorative and instead connoted the majesty of the imperial government.

Because of the gate's position at the front of the Imperial City, and historical events that have taken place on , the gate has great political significance. In the 20th Century this means the gate has frequently been decorated with portraits of objects of veneration. In the early years of the People's Republic, on special occasions the gate was hung with portraits of Sun Yat-sen, Mao Zedong, , , , and , with pride of place reserved for Sun Yat-sen.

Since the death of Mao in 1976, the central gate has had a portrait of Mao Zedong towering over it, while the western and eastern walls have had giant placards; the left one reads "Long Live the People's Republic of China" , while the right one reads "Long live the Great Unity of the World's Peoples" . The right placard used to read "Long Live the Central People's Government" , and both placards are written in simplified Chinese instead of traditional Chinese characters. The phrasing has significant symbolic meaning, as the , like the palace itself, was traditionally reserved for Emperors of China, but is now available to the common people.

The reviewing stands in the foreground are used on International Workers Day and on the National Day of the People's Republic of China.

In front of the stands is the palace moat, still filled with water but now containing decorative illuminated fountains.

In ancient times, the Tian'anmen is the third gate encountered when entering Beijing. After the Qianmen, the , stands the Tian'anmen. Proceeding further inward, the next gate is the 'Upright Gate' , identical in design to the Tian'anmen; behind it is the southern entrance of the Forbidden City itself, known as the Meridian Gate.

The Tian'anmen is featured on the emblem of the People's Republic of China.

Qianmen

The Qianmen is the common name for the gateway known formally as Zhengyangmen . It is a gate in Beijing, China. It stands at the south end of the Tiananmen Square precinct, and was formerly the front gate of the , a part of the ancient city of Beijing.


First built in 1419, the gateway consisted of a gatehouse proper and an archery tower, which forms a large barbican. Today the archery tower and the gatehouse survive - though not in the form originally built. The present gates date from 1914 and incorporate modern design elements suggested by German advisors. At 42 metres high, the gatehouse was, and is, the tallest among all of the gates of Beijing. There is also a Qianmen ''hutong''.

After the Communist victory in 1949, the gate complex was occupied by the Beijing garrison of the People's Liberation Army. The military vacated the gate in 1980.

Behind the Qianmen once stood the , followed by the present Tiananmen, and the Meridian Gate, which is the front entrance to the Forbidden City.

Because of its grandeur and unique design, the Qianmen was long seen as the symbol of old Beijing.

Listening

* from ''The World'' program, July 8, 2008

Qianling Mausoleum

The Qianling Mausoleum is a Tang Dynasty tomb site located in , Shaanxi province, China, and is 85 km northwest from Xi'an, formerly the . Built by 684 , the tombs of the mausoleum complex houses the remains of various members of the royal . This includes Emperor Gaozong of Tang , as well as his wife, the Zhou Dynasty usurper and China's first governing empress Wu Zetian . The mausoleum is renowned for its many Tang Dynasty stone statues located above ground and the mural paintings adorning the subterranean walls of the tombs. Besides the main tumulus mound and underground tomb of Gaozong and Wu Zetian, there is a total of 17 smaller attendant tombs or ''peizang mu''. Presently, only 5 of these attendant tombs have been excavated by archaeologists, three belonging to members of the royal family, one to a chancellor of China, and the other to a general of the left guard.

History

Following his death in 683, Emperor Gaozong's mausoleum complex was completed in 684. After the death of Wu Zetian, she was interred in a joint burial with Gaozong at Qianling on July 2 706. Tang Dynasty funerary epitaphs in the tombs of her son , grandson Li Chongrun , and granddaughter Li Xianhui of the mausoleum are inscribed with the date of burial as 706 AD, allowing historians to accurately date the structures and artwork of the tombs. Both the ''Book of Tang'' and ''New Book of Tang'' record that in the year 706 Wu Zetian's son Emperor Zhongzong of Tang exonerated the victims of Wu Zetian's political purges and provided them with honorable burials, including the two princes and princess mentioned above. Besides the attendant tombs of these royal family members, two others that have been excavated belonging to Chancellor Xue Yuanchao and General of the Left Guard Li Jinxing. In March 1995, there was an organized petition to about efforts to finally excavate Gaozong and Wu Zetian's tomb.

Location

3.6 m tall 'Uncharactered Stele' built to commemorate Wu Zetian The grounds of the mausoleum are flanked by Leopard Valley to the east and Sand Canyon to the west. The complex was originally enclosed by two walls, the remains of which have been discovered today, including what was four gatehouses of the inner wall. The remains of some of these houses have since been discovered. The building foundation of the timber offering hall situated at the south gate of the mausoleum's inner wall has also been discovered. The of the presented an ostrich to the Tang court in 620 and the Tushara Kingdom sent another in 650; in carved reliefs of Qianling dated c. 683, are modelled on the body of ostriches. Historian Tonia Eckfeld states that the artistic emphasis on the exotic foreign tribute of the ostrich at the mausoleum was "a sign of the greatness of China and the Chinese emperor, not of the foreigners who sent them, or of the places from which they came". These statues, now headless, represent the actual foreign diplomats who were present at Gaozong's funeral. Besides the statues, there are also flanking sets of octagonal stone pillars meant to ward off evil spirits. The tomb of Li Xian also features real fully-stone doors, a tomb trend apparent in the and Dynasties that became more common by the time of the Northern Qi. The stylistic stone door of Lou Rui's tomb of 570 closely resembles that of Tang stone doors, such as the one in Li Xian's tomb. Of the 18 emperors of the Tang Dynasty, 14 of these had natural mountains serving as the earthen mounds for their tombs. Children of the emperor were allowed to have truncated tumulus mounds as their burial place, but officials were only allowed conical-shaped pyramids for their burial sites. There are six vertical shafts for the ramps of each of these tombs which allowed goods to be lowered into the side niches of the ramps. In fact, in Li Chongrun's tomb alone, there were found over a thousand items of gold, copper, iron, ceramic figurines, colored figurines, and three-glaze pottery wares.

Murals

court ladies from a mural of Lady Li Xianhui's tomb. The actual murals in Li Xianhui's tomb have been replaced by replicas as the originals are now kept in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum to better preserve them. For the original in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum, .]]

Historian Mary H. Fong states that the tomb murals in the subterranean halls of Li Xián's, Li Chongrun's, and Li Xianhui's tombs are representative of anonymous but professional tomb decorators rather than renowned court painters of handscrolls. Fong also asserts that the painting skill of portraying "animation through spirit consonance" or ''qiyun shendong''—an art critique associated with renowned Tang painters like Yan Liben, Zhou Fang, and Chen Hong—was achieved by the anonymous Tang tomb painters. Fong writes:


The "Palace Guard" and the "Two Seated Attendants" from Prince Zhang Huai's tomb are especially outstanding in this respect. Not only are the relative differences in age achieved but it is evident that the robust guard officer who stands at attention displays an attitude of respectful self-assurance; and the seated pair are deeply engrossed in a serious conversation.


Another important feature in the murals of the tomb was the representation of architecture. Although there are numerous examples of existing Tang for architectural historians to examine, there are only six remaining wooden halls that have survived from the 8th and 9th centuries. Only the rammed earth foundations of the great palaces of the Tang capital at Chang'an have survived. However, some of the mural scenes of timber architecture in Li Chongrun's tomb at Qianling have been suggested by historians as representative of the Eastern Palace, residence of the crown prince during the Tang. The underground hall of the descending ramp approaching Li Chongrun's tomb chambers as well as the gated entrance to the front chamber feature murals of multiple-bodied que gate towers similar to those whose foundations were excavated at Chang'an.

Precious Belt Bridge

The Precious Belt Bridge is a Chinese stone arch bridge located near the city of Suzhou, Jiangsu , China. The Precious Belt Bridge is located at the intersection of the and Dantai Lake, about 2.5 kilometer south east of Suzhou.

History

The first construction of the bridge dates back to the year 816 AD, during the mid Tang Dynasty. during the reign of the Zhengtong Emperor.

, while attached to the Macartney Embassy in 1793, visited the Precious Belt Bridge during the diplomatic mission to China. He accurately described the bridge's length and the central arches being of greater height than the rest.

Dimensions

The bridge's span is 317  long and has a width of 4.1 m , with a total of 53 arches in its span. The three central arches are enlarged to allow for the passage of - by historical standards - larger river vessels without . The average span of each arch is 4.6 m .

Palace of Heavenly Purity

The Palace of Heavenly Purity, or Qianqing Palace is a palace in the Forbidden City in Beijing, China. It is the largest of the three halls of the Inner Court , located at the northern end of the Forbidden City. During the Qing dynasty, the palace often served as the Emperor's audience hall, where he held council with the Grand Council.

The Palace of Heavenly Purity is a double-eaved building, and set on a single-level white marble platform. It is connected to the Gate of Heavenly Purity to its south by a raised walkway. In the Ming Dynasty, it was the residence of the Emperor. The large space was divided into nine rooms on two levels, with twenty-seven beds. For security, on any one night the Emperor would randomly choose from any of these beds. This continued through the early Qing Dynasty. However, when the Yongzheng Emperor ascended to the throne, he did not wish to inhabit the palace occupied by for sixty years. He and subsequent emperors lived instead at the smaller Hall of Mental Cultivation to the west. The Palace of Heavenly Purity then became the Emperor's audience hall, where he held court, received ministers and emissaries, and held banquets. At the centre of the Palace, set atop an elaborate platform, is a throne and a desk, on which the Emperor wrote notes and signed documents during councils with ministers. A caisson is set into the roof, featuring a coiled dragon. Above the throne hangs a tablet reading "Justice and Honour" . From the Yongzheng Emperor onwards, the Emperor designated his heir in secret, with one copy of the will hidden behind this tablet and another carried at all times by the Emperor.

Palace of Earthly Tranquility

The Palace of Earthly Tranquility （坤宁宫）is the northernmost of the three main halls of the Inner Court of the Forbidden City, the other two halls being the Palace of Heavenly Purity and the Hall of Union.

The Palace of Earthly Tranquility is a double-eaved building, 9 bays wide and 3 bays deep. In the Ming Dynasty, it was the residence of the Empress. In the Qing Dynasty, large portions of the Palace were converted for Shamanist worship by the new Manchu rulers. Thus, the front part of the hall featured shrines, icons, prayer mats, and a large kitchen where sacrificial meat was prepared. From the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, the Empress moved out of the Palace following the Emperor's move out of the Palace of Heavenly Purity. However, two rooms in the Palace of Earthly Harmony were retained for use on the Emperor's wedding night. The wedding ceremony would be held in the main room, and afterwards the Emperor and Empress would retire to one of these rooms.

Pagoda

A pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Some pagodas are used as Taoist houses of worship. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most commonly , and were often located in or near temples. This term may refer to other religious structures in some countries. In Myanmar and Thailand, "pagoda" usually means the same as stupa or chaitya, while in Vietnam, "pagoda" is a more generic term referring to a place of worship. The modern pagoda is an evolution of the Ancient Indian stupa, a tomb-like structure where sacred relics could be kept safe and venerated. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design.

Terms

The word is first attested for in English in the period c. 1625–35; introduced from the Portuguese ''pagode'', temple, from the Persian ''butkada'' Another etymology, found in many English language dictionaries, is modern English ''pagoda'' from Portuguese , from Sanskrit ''bhagavati'', feminine of ''bhagavat'' "blessed" < ''bhaga'' "good fortune."

History of the Pagoda

The origin of the pagoda can be traced to the Indian stupa . The stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. This purpose was popularized due to the efforts of , pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to seek out, distribute, and extol Buddhist relics.

Symbolism

iconography is noticeable in Chinese pagoda as well as other pagoda architectures. The image of the Shakyamuni Buddha in the '''' is also noticeable in some Pagodas. Buddhist iconography can be observed throughout the pagoda symbolism.

In an article on Buddhist elements in Han art, Wu Hung suggests that in these tombs, Buddhist iconography was so well incorporated into native Chinese traditions that a unique system of symbolism had been developed.

Architecture

Pagodas attract lightning strikes because of their height. This tendency may have played a role in their perception as ly charged places. Many pagodas have a decorated finial at the top of the structure. The finial is designed in such a way as to have symbolic meaning within Buddhism; for example, it may include designs representing a . The finial also functions as a lightning rod, and thus helps to both attract lightning and protect the pagoda from lightning damage. Early pagodas were constructed out of wood, but steadily progressed to sturdier materials, which helped protect against fires and rot.

Pagodas traditionally have an odd number of floors, a famous exception being the eighteenth century pagoda "folly" designed by Sir William Chambers at Kew Gardens in London.

Land of Pagodas

Myanmar, also known as Burma, is famous for its pagoda-studded landscape, and is thus called as the Land of Pagodas. The Shwedagon Pagoda and the Pagodas of Bagan are amongst the most famous and reverred pagodas in the world.

Some famous pagodas

*Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar
* Nyatopol- Five storied Pagoda,Bhaktapur, Nepal
*Chùa M?t C?t- One Pillar Pagoda, Hanoi, Vietnam, is an icon of Vietnamese culture.
*Xumi Pagoda at Zhengding, Hebei, China, built in 636.
*Miruksa Temple Pagoda at Iksan of Chollabuk-do province in the Republic of Korea, a Baekje pagoda mid 7th century.
*Chùa C?u- Bridge Pagoda, Hoi An, Quang Nam, Vietnam.
*Chùa ?n Quang, a meeting place for Vietnamese Buddhist leaders in Ho Chi Minh City, and site of the Institute for Dharma Propagation.
*Daqin Pagoda in China, built in 640 by early Christians.
*Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built in Xi'an, China in 652.
*Small Wild Goose Pagoda, built in Xi'an, China in 709.
*Lingxiao Pagoda at Zhengding, Hebei, China, built in 1045.
*Beisi Pagoda at Suzhou, Jiangsu, China, built in 1162.
*Tō-ji, the tallest wooden structure in Japan.
*, a wonder of the medieval world in Nanjing, China.
*Pha That Luang, the holiest wat, pagoda, and stupa in Laos, in Vientiane
*Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng, built in 1049 AD, during the Chinese Song Dynasty.
*Liuhe Pagoda of Hangzhou, built in 1165 AD, during the Song Dynasty.
*Phra Pathom Chedi the highest pagoda or stupa in the world Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
*Global Pagoda, the largest unsupported domed stone structure in the world.
*Pizhi Pagoda of Lingyan Temple, Shandong, China, 11th century.
*, the highest pagoda in the world since its completion in April 2007, stands at 153.7m in height.
*Songyue Pagoda on Mount Song, Henan, China, built in 523.
*Huqiu Tower, built in 961 outside of Suzhou, China.
*Pagoda of Fugong Temple, built in 1056 in Ying County, Shanxi, China.

Modern skyscrapers that evoke pagoda architecture:

*The Bombardier Pagoda, or Pagoda Tower, at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. This 13-story pagoda is the famous structure used as the control tower for races at the famed speedway, such as the Indy 500. The pagoda has gone through several transformations since it was first build in 1913.
*The Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, record setters for height in 1998.
*Taipei 101 in Taiwan, record setter for height in 2004 and currently the world's tallest completed building.

Mukden Palace

The Mukden Palace or Shenyang Gugong , also known as the Shenyang Imperial Palace, is the former imperial palace of the early Qing Dynasty of China.

It was built in 1625 and the first three Qing emperors lived there from 1625 to 1644. It is located in the center of the city of Mukden, Manchuria .

History

Early construction began in 1625 by Nurhaci. By 1631, additional structures were added under Emperor Huang Taiji.

The Mukden Palace was built to resemble the Forbidden City in Beijing. However, the palace also exhibits hints of and styles.

After the Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty in 1644 in Beijing, the Mukden palace lost its status as the official residence of the Emperor. Instead, the Mukden Palace became a regional palace.

In 1780, Emperor Qianlong further expanded the palace. Successive Qing dynasty emperors usually stayed at Mukden Palace for some time each year.

Museum

In 1955, Mukden Palace was converted into the Shenyang Palace Museum.

In 2004, it was included on the UNESCO World Heritage List as an extension of the site in Beijing.

Meridian Gate

The Meridian Gate is the southern gate of the Forbidden City. It has five arches. The three central arches are close together; the two flanking arches are farther apart from the three central arches. The center arch was formerly reserved for the Emperor alone; the exceptions were the Empress, who could enter it once on the day of her wedding, and the top three scholars of the triennial civil service examinations, who left the exams through the central arch. All other officials and servants had to use the four side arches.

Above the arches are a series of buildings. The central one is the palace of nine bays wide, with double roofs. In each side, the 13 bays-wide building, single roof, connects the two pavilions on the top. The Emperor of China reviewed his troops from this location during the and dynasties.

Its superstructure is also called the "Five Phoenix Turrets" because it is composed of five buildings. Imperial proclamations and almanacs were issued from the gate house. After successful campaigns, the Emperor received prisoners of war here, sometimes followed by mass decapitations. The gate has five gateways.

Although urban myth has it that senior officers were executed here in Imperial China; in reality only corporal punishment was actually carried out.

Behind the viewer is , the principal entrance to the imperial palace grounds.

When proceeding northward through the palace grounds, the next major gate encountered is the Gate of Supreme Harmony.

Lugou Bridge

The Lugou Bridge , also known as the Marco Polo Bridge, is a famous stone bridge located 15 km outside of the Beijing city center across the Yongding river—a main tributary of Hai River. The Lugou Bridge is well-known because it was highly praised by the Venetian traveler Marco Polo during his visit to China in the 13th century , and for the Marco Polo Bridge incident, which marked the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War .

''"Over this river there is a very fine stone bridge, so fine indeed, that it has very few equals in the world."'' - The Diary of Marco Polo

Construction of the original bridge on this site commenced in 1189 and was completed in 1192 and was later reconstructed in 1698. The Lugou Bridge is 266.5 m in length and 9.3 m in width, supported on 281 pillars. On each pillar stands a stone lion. The most intriguing feature of these beasts is the fact that there are more lions hiding on the head, back or under the belly or on paws of each of the big lions. Investigations to determine the total number of animals have been carried out on several occasions but the results have proved inconsistent, ranging anywhere from 482 to 496. However, record has it that there were originally a total of 627 lions. The posture of each lion varies, as do their ages. Most date from the and dynasties, some are from the earlier Yuan Dynasty ; while the few lions dating from as long ago as the Jin Dynasty are now quite rare.

Four ornamental columns each 4.65 meters high and a white marble stele stand at the ends of the bridge. One stele records the reconstruction of the bridge by Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty in 1698. The other stele bears calligraphy by Emperor Qianlong, the grandson of Kangxi. It reads 'Morning moon over Lugou', and for the 700 years since its completion, the bridge has been a well known scenic spot in Beijing.

As well as being famed for its aesthetic features, Lugou Bridge is also considered to be an architectural masterpiece. It is built of solid granite, with a large central arch flanked by ten smaller ones. Each of the ten piers is protected by triangular iron pillars that have been installed to prevent damage by flood and ice.

However, Lugou Bridge holds a very special place in the modern history of China, and more for painful memories rather than either its stunning beauty or amazing architectural achievement. It was here on the Marco Polo Bridge that the eight-year-long War of Resistance Against Japan commenced on July 7, 1937, that culminated with the surrender of Japan in 1945.

Longxing Monastery

The Longxing Monastery is an ancient monastery located near the town of Zhengding in Hebei , China, approximately 15 kilometers north of the provincial capital of Shijiazhuang. It has been referred to as the ''"First Temple south of Beijing"''.

History

The monastery was first built in , during the Sui Dynasty. Some of the oldest stelas still standing on the monastery grounds date back to this period. Much of it was reconstructed during the Song Dynasty .

Following a common pattern, the monastery complex features a central axis along which a sequence of buildings and focal points is arranged. The first building is the ''Hall of the ''. At the opposite end of the axis is the Main Hall , a 33-meter-high wooden structure, which houses a bronze statue of . This bronze was built during the early years of the Song Dynasty; its height exceeds 20 meters. Inside the hall, a staircase leads around the statue which allows it to be seen from top to bottom.


Other notable artworks of the monastery are a colorful wooden carving of Guanyin sitting in a grotto and statues of sitting on a throne.

A unique piece of wood architecture from the Song Dynasty in the Longxing Monastery is the ''Pavilion of the Rotating Library'', which was restored in the 20th century. The pavilion houses a rotating bookshelf which was formerly used to store holy texts and Buddhist sutras. This rotating book case repository dates back to the 12th century, and is the oldest existent rotating repository of its kind .

Today, the Longxing Monastery is open to the public as a .

Imperial City, Beijing

The Imperial City is a section of the city of Beijing in the and dynasties. It refers to the collection of gardens, shrines, and other service areas between the Forbidden City and the Inner City of ancient Beijing. The Imperial City was surrounded by a and accessed through six gates.

Construction

In the Yuan dynasty, Beijing was known as , and the Imperial City formed the centre of the city. In 1368, the armies conquered , and changed its name to , with the capital moved to Nanjing. Because the Imperial City was untouched by battle, most of the Imperial City survived the war; however, in 1369, the Hongwu Emperor ordered that the Imperial City be demolished.

In 1370, the Hongwu Emperor's fourth son Zhu Di was created Prince of Yan, with seat in Beiping. In 1379 he built a princely palace within the Imperial City.

In 1399, Zhu Di launched a coup d'etat and ascended to the throne to become Yongle Emperor in 1402. In 1403, the name of Beiping was changed to Beijing , and in 1406 a plan was drafted to move the capital to Beijing.

In 1416, construction of the Forbidden City began, copying the layout of the existing palaces in Nanjing. The new imperial palace was placed to the east of the Yuan palace, in order to place the Yuan palace in the "White Tiger" or "Kill" position in ''''. Also for '''' reasons, earth dug up from construction of the moat were used to construct to the north of the imperial palace.

On the basis of the Yuan Imperial City, the area was expanded to encompass the lakes of Zhongnanhai and and a significant area beyond.

Ming dynasty

The Imperial City centres on the Forbidden City. To the west of the Forbidden City are the Zhongnanhai and , which were surrounded by imperial gardens and collectively known as the Western Park.

To the south of the forbidden City are the Imperial Shrine of Family or Imperial Ancestral Temple and Shrine of State . Further to the south was the "Corridor of a Thousand Steps", to either side of which are the of the various government ministeries.

There are six gates in the walls of the Imperial City. To the south is the Great Ming Gate . Behind the Great Ming Gate was the Chengtianmen, . To either side of the Tiananmen were the Left Chang'an Gate and the Right Chang'an Gate. To the east was Donganmen ; to the west was the Xi'anmen . To the north was Houzaimen .

Also housed in the Imperial City were a number of service buildings for the imperial palace, warehouses, a leopard house, temples, and a palace for the Imperial Grandson.

Qing dynasty

After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, the rulers of the Qing removed most of the service buildings. Apart from a narrow area surrounding the lakes of Zhongnanhai and , the western parts of the Imperial City were given to princes and members of the Eight Banners as residential land. Likewise, apart from a small number of warehouses, the eastern parts of the Imperial City were also given to members of the Eight Banners as residential land. To the collection of temples in the Imperial City was added a Catholic church on the western shore of Zhongnanhai.

Republic of China to present

After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the Republic of China government took over the Imperial City. Zhongnanhai was, for a time, converted into the Presidential Palace. The Imperial Shrines became a part of the . and became public parks. Most of the former temples and imperial warehouses gradually became private residences.

In 1912, during a coup by warlord Cao Kun, the Donganmen gate was destroyed by fire. In 1914, the Corridor of a Thousand Steps was demolished to make way for Zhongshan Park, named after Sun Yat-sen. In 1915, in order to improve traffic, much of the wall surrounding the Imperial City was demolished. After the capital was moved to Nanjing, Zhongnanhai became a public park.

In 1949, the People's Republic of China was established in Beijing. In the next few years, Gate of China, Left Chang'an Gate, Right Chang'an Gate, the three remaining eastern and western gates, and Di'anmen were demolished. Most of the temples and Paifangs in the Imperial City were demolished.

Zhongnanhai became the leadership compound of the new government, housing the central headquarters of the Communist Party of China and the State Council. Many of the surviving buildings in the former garden were demolished.

The area to the west of Beihai Park were occupied by the Department of Defence, with a large office building now dominating the park skyline. Most of the temples in the Imperial City were occupied by units of the People's Liberation Army. Some of these buildings remain occupied and are in severe disrepair.

In recent decade, the Beijing municipal government has restored several of these temples, and established a park around the remaining sections of the Imperial City wall. Plans were drawn up to gradually move out institutions occupying various historical buildings . In 2004, a 1984 ordinance relating to building height and planning restriction was renewed to establish the Imperial City area and the northern city area as a buffer zone for the Forbidden City. In 2005, a proposal was released to include the Imperial City and as extension items to the Forbidden City as a World Heritage Site.